Archaeological Hearths - Features With Benefits

A hearth is an archaeological feature that represents the remnants of a purposeful fire. Hearths can be extremely valuable elements of an archaeological site, as they are indicators of a whole range of human behaviors and provide an opportunity for obtaining radiocarbon dates for the period that people used them. Hearths are typically used to cook food, but may also have been used to heat-treat lithics, burn pottery and/or a variety of social reasons such a beacon to let others know where you are, a way to keep predators away, or simply provide a warm and inviting gathering place. The purposes of a hearth are often discernible within the remnants: and those purposes are key to understanding the human behaviors of the people who used it. Types of Hearths Over the millennia of human history, there have been a wide variety of intentionally-built fires: some were simply piles of wood stacked on the ground, some were excavated into the ground and covered to provide steam heat, some were built up with adobe brick for use as earth ovens, and some were stacked upwards with a mix of fired brick and potsherds to act as ad hoc pottery kilns. A typical archaeological hearth falls in the middle range of this continuum, a bowl-shaped soil discoloration, within which is evidence that the contents have been exposed to temperatures between 300-800 degrees centigrade. How do archaeologists identify a hearth with this range of shapes and sizes? There are three crucial elements to a hearth: inorganic material used to shape the feature; organic material burned in the feature; and evidence of that combustion. Shaping the Feature: Fire-Cracked Rock In places in the world where rock is readily available, the defining characteristic of a hearth is often plenty of fire-cracked rock, or FCR, the technical term for rock thats been cracked by exposure to high temperatures. FCR is differentiated from other broken rock because it has been discolored and thermally altered, and although often the pieces can be refit together, there is no evidence of impact damage or deliberate stone working. However, not all FCR is discolored and cracked. Experiments recreating the processes that make fire-cracked rock have revealed that the presence of discoloration (reddening and/or blackening) and spalling of larger specimens depends both on the kind of rock being used (quartzite, sandstone, granite, etc.) and the kind of fuel (wood, peat, animal dung) used in the fire. Both of those drive the temperatures of a fire, as does the length of time the fire is lit. Well-fed campfires can easily create temperatures up to 400-500 degrees centigrade; long-sustained fires can get to 800 degrees or more. When hearths have been exposed to the weather or agricultural processes, disturbed by animals or humans, they can still be identified as scatters of fire-cracked rock. Burned Bone and Plant Parts If a hearth was used to cook dinner, the leftovers of what was processed in the hearth may include animal bone and plant matter, which can be preserved if turned to charcoal. Bone which was buried under fire becomes carbonized and black, but bones on the surface of a fire are often calcined and white. Both types of carbonized bone can be radiocarbon-dated; if the bone is large enough, it can be identified to species, and if it is well-preserved, often cut-marks resulting from butchery practices can be found. Cut-marks themselves can be very useful keys to understanding human behaviors. Plant parts can also be found in hearth contexts. Burned seeds are often preserved in hearth conditions, and microscopic plant residues such as starch grains, opal phytoliths and pollen may also be preserved if conditions are right. Some fires are too hot and will damage the shapes of plant parts; but on occasion, these will survive and in an identifiable form. Combustion The presence of burned sediments, burnt patches of earth identified by discoloration and exposure to heat, is not always macroscopically apparent, but can be identified by micromorphological analysis, when microscopically thin slices of earth are examined to identify tiny fragments of ashed plant material and burnt bone fragments. Finally, non-structured hearths--hearths that either were placed on the surface and were weathered by long-term wind exposure and rain/frost weathering, made without large stones or the stones were deliberately removed later and are not marked by burned soils--have still been identified at sites, based on the presence of concentrations of large quantities of burnt stone (or heat-treated) artifacts. Sources This article is a part of the About.com guide to the Archaeology Features, and the Dictionary of Archaeology. Backhouse PN, and Johnson E. 2007. Where were the hearths: an experimental investigation of the archaeological signature of prehistoric fire technology in the alluvial gravels of the Southern Plains. Journal of Archaeological Science 34(9):1367-1378. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2006.10.027Bentsen SE. 2014. Using Pyrotechnology: Fire-related features and activities with a focus on the African Middle Stone Age. Journal of Archaeological Research 22(2):141-175.Fernà ¡ndez Peris J, Gonzà ¡lez VB, Blasco R, Cuartero F, Fluck H, Saà ±udo P, and Verdasco C. 2012. The earliest evidence of hearths in Southern Europe: The case of Bolomor Cave (Valencia, Spain). Quaternary International 247(0):267-277. Goldberg P, Miller C, Schiegl S, Ligouis B, Berna F, Conard N, and Wadley L. 2009.Bedding, hearths, and site maintenance in the Middle Stone Age of Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 1(2):95-122. Gowlett JAJ, and Wrangham RW. 2013. Earliest fire in Afr ica: towards the convergence of archaeological evidence and the cooking hypothesis. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 48(1):5-30.Karkanas P, Koumouzelis M, Kozlowski JK, Sitlivy V, Sobczyk K, Berna F, and Weiner S. 2004. The earliest evidence for clay hearths: Aurignacian features in Klisoura Cave 1, southern Greece. Antiquity 78(301):513–525.Marquer L, Otto T, Nespoulet R, and Chiotti L. 2010. A new approach to study the fuel used in hearths by hunter-gatherers at the Upper Palaeolithic site of Abri Pataud (Dordogne, France). Journal of Archaeological Science 37(11):2735-2746. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2010.06.009Sergant J, Crombe P, and Perdaen Y. 2006. The ‘invisible’ hearths: a contribution to the discernment of Mesolithic non-structured surface hearths. Journal of Archaeological Science 33:999-1007.

Steve Jobs Technological Revolutionist - 916 Words

Steve Jobs: Technological Revolutionist Steve Jobs, the co-founder and former CEO of Apple and majority shareholder of Pixar, was an extremely innovative visionary who left his mark on the world. He was a strong leader, entrepreneur, and inventor. Job’s was a technological revolutionist, creating legendary hardware and software advancements which significantly impacted: science, how we communicate and interact; as well as literature, music, and media. Steve Jobs greatest impact worldwide was on science, specifically computer science. In 1997 he created the first fully assembled desktop computer, the Apple II, which was known for its expandability. Schools used the Apple II to teach programming, integrating computer science into the†¦show more content†¦This next generation operating system appealed to windows users, persuading them to begin switching to apple computers. Sales soared in 2006 for Apple when they switched from PowerPC processors to Intel’s core Duo chips, creating the Intel Macbook Pro. The Macbook Pro was Apple’s first laptop with an intel CPU, enhancing the average clock speeds. â€Å"The world’s thinnest notebook,† the Macbook Air was created in 2008. The air is thin, light, and lacks an optical drive; implementing the feature to beam data over wifi. The software, function, and design of Apple computers is accredited to Job’s until 2016, as he prepared for technological advancements to be released five years following his death in 2011. Steve Job’s innovation of the computer throughout his lifetime has influenced how humans connect and work today. Although Steve Jobs has passed, he continues to impact how we communicate and interact today, both personally and professionally. The hardware and software he created expanded the ways in which humans are able to communicate. Thanks to various wireless providers, devices such as Apple computers, iPhone, ipad, and even the latest iPod enable us to communicate. The iPhone revolutionized how the 94 Million people communicate; they can communicate wirelessly over the phone, text, iMessage, and facetime. The use of iMessage and facetime is not limited to the iPhone, these forms of communication are also accessible on apple computers, iPads, and

An Inspector Calls/Of Mice and Men Comparison free essay sample

Shows women are only for recreation (brothel houses present in both the books) and procreation (a married woman). If a woman is not married she is seen as a an object (a luxury possession to the them and have no status) Frequent visits to the Brothel houses from the Ranch workers. Biblical Allusions- Eve (Curley’s Wife) deters the men from acquiring their Eden (Hopes and Dreams) OMAM- HC- Flappers- Women started to dress more provocatively. More disposable income before crash. Later on, they were shunned away as money was not widely available. IC – HC- Working class single women of the time were completely at the clemency (kindness) of wealthy and powerful members of the society. Eva Smith referred to as Eve to tempt Gerald away from his Eden- (his marriage to Sheila) Actual- Suffragettes- Desperate Women (Work) did desperate things to survive. (Exploitation of the rich) Morality- â€Å"They will be taught in blood, fire and anguish†- Will lead to man’s fa ll of paradise into hell if perceptions of society do not change. We will write a custom essay sample on An Inspector Calls/Of Mice and Men Comparison or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Always women’s fault. Lead on to Darwinian Theory â€Å"Ranch with a bunch of guys on it ain’t no place for a girl† Shows class systems of how a male dominated naturalist society conduct what happens and everybody avoids her as they do not want to get in trouble with the second highest character- Curley since his wife is his possession. A Woman has no place in society- married (Curley’s Wife) or unmarried (Brothel house workers) Oppression and Hostility Faced due to her Gender HC- Economic Crash- Fluid movement of working men, women were expected to stay at home while the men earn money and in this transient working environment, women did not have a place and led to an isolation†¦ Inspector Calls Girls of that class (Said by Mrs Birling- Directed to Eva Smith) Thinks she is socially and morally superior. â€Å"That† suggests abhorrence of the working class  Without Mr Birling, Mrs Birling solidarity of her status could not be exercised. (Shunning away from helping Eva Smith) Sheila uses her status and authority to get Eva sacked from her job at Milwards. How status can affect a person’s life- Just by â€Å"Verbal Command† Sheila can destruct a person’s dreams and ambitions with just a will. For a raise in pay, Eva Smith (Perpetrated as the ring leader to protest about poor pay is made redundant by her action) Big Idea Darwinian Theory- Man’s Predatory Instinctive Nature causes class divide to sustain and sometimes elongate. Curley exercises power over Wife and cannot tolerate her independence. Crude imagery- Curley = Master, Dog= Curley’s Wife. (Cannot tolerate dog being off the leash.) Status is important in IC as marrying into same class is considered the norm and preferably into higher class therefore status divide keeps increasing. Welfare of workers is overlooked just for wealth. Historical Context- War and Working Class Women – Only if you were poor, expected to work. Rich women just had to get married. Point 3- Dreams and Work Of Mice and Men â€Å"Coulda been in the movies. Had nice clothes† – Curley’s Wife’s American Dream relates to the dreams of many other Americans in 1930s America during the Great Depression. It never materialises into an actual reality. Standing on your own two feet independently- AMERICAN DREAM IDEOLOGY

The Ethics of Academic Freedom free essay sample

Truly dangerous if it is not respected and handled with care. And nowhere is that most apparent, than on the campuses and in the classrooms of this nations institutions Of higher education. Even on the most tolerant of campuses, there exist individuals who are opinionated, biased, and judgmental of others perspectives. That is to be expected. But what happens when the professors and educators (or those who have put themselves in the role as educator) have taken their freedoms for granted and base everything that they say has merit given his or her First Amendment right? Academic FreedomAcademic Freedom exists. .In order that society will have the benefit of honest judgment and independent criticism which might (otherwise) be withheld because of fear of offending a dominant social group or transient social attitude (Kumara, 1993). Its a regulation to help make sure that professors and students alike have a voice on campus. We will write a custom essay sample on The Ethics of Academic Freedom or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The American Association of University Professors is a national organization committed solely to college and university faculty members. It defends academic freedom and tenure, advocates collegial governance, and develops policies ensuring due process (Sledded,2004).They have been extremely vocal in the assurance of academic freedom in academe. One current section on academic freedom reads as follows: Freedom of thought and expression is essential to any institution of higher learning. Universities and colleges exist not only to transmit knowledge. Equally, they interpret, explore, and expand that knowledge by testing the old and proposing the new. This mission guides learning outside the classroom quite as much as in class, and often inspires vigorous debate on those social, economic, and political issues that arouse the strongest passions. In the process, views will be expressed that may seem to many wrong, distasteful, or offensive. Such is the nature of freedom to sift and winnow ideas. On a campus that is free and open, no idea can be banned or forbidden. No viewpoint or message may be deemed so hateful or disturbing that it may not be expressed. Paps Committee on Academic Freedom and Tenure, June 1992. Academic freedom is not equivalent to the same freedoms promised us by the First Amendment. If one were to assume that, then any professor could go into a classroom and espouse his or her personal beliefs as law (which, Daly enough, some professors do). By having academic freedom, it should not excuse anyone from being held responsible for what he or she might say. Taken from the 1940 statement of academic freedom, Point B reads as: Teachers are entitled to freedom in the classroom in discussing their subject, but they should be careful not to introduce into their teaching controversial matter which has no relation to their subject. Limitations of academic freedom because of religious or other aims of the institution should be clearly stated in writing at the time of the appointment. AUP, 1940However, US regulations had this definition of academic freedom: The function of the university is to seek to transmit knowledge and to train students in the process whereby truth is to be mane known. To convert, or to make converts, is alien and hostile to this dispassionate duty. Where it becomes necessary, in performing this function Of a university, to consider political, social, or sectarian movements, they are to be dissected and examine d, not taught, and the conclusion left, with no tipping of the scales, to the logic and the facts. University of California University Regulations (Revised No. 5), 1 934This seemed like a very sound foundation in which to run an institution of higher learning. After all, these regulations for the US System had been in effect since 1934. However, in the aftermath of September 1 lath, many professors began to teach by way of indoctrinating instead of educating. Even US Berkeley president wanted to change the rules of academic freedom to to reflect the modern university and its faculty (Atkinson, R. , 2003). But why should we now change the rules to suit or behavior? Academic Bill of Rights Conservative author, David Horopito believes that with a new Academic Bill ofRights, we can get the liberal thinking colleges and universities back on track with what the academic freedom rules outline. He believes that there have been too many instances of liberal professors trying to indoctrinate political ideals and beliefs on students, and that if a student disagrees with the professors belief, he or she will be penalized by presumably receiving a fail ing grade. Horopito gives as an example the case of a Leistering of Northern Colorado student who had received a failing grade on a paper that reportedly refused to address the question of Why President Bush is a war rimming? (SAP, 2003). This new Bill of Rights reads simply enough and it sounds fair to all parties involved. For example; All faculty shall be hired, fired, promoted and granted tenure on the basis of their competence and appropriate knowledge in the field Of their expertise NO faculty shall be hired or fired or denied promotion or tenure on the basis of his or her political or religious beliefs; also, Students will be graded solely on the basis of their reasoned answers and appropriate knowledge not on the basis of their political or religious beliefs (SARA, 2003).But even with this type of wording, as politically correct as it may seem, there is, of course, a hidden agenda surrounding Horopito draft (at least, according to some). Right-Winged Conservatives According to Horopito , his bill has some heavy supporters; The American Council on Education; the National Coalition Against Censorship; the Association for Extrajudicial Affairs; the Foundation for Individual Rights in Education; and various college and university professors and educators.Along with Horopito, these groups believe that by having the academic bill of rights, college campuses will become more intellectually diverse (Jacobson, 005). Horopito has taken it upon himself to create this bill to allow the more conservative students a voice when working with their (seem ingle) more liberal professors viewpoints. It is to provide an educational environment where students feel comfortable expressing their opinions free from the worry of discrimination based on political beliefs (Winters, 2005).Part of the bill reads as follows: Faculty and instructors shall be free to pursue and discuss their own findings and perspectives in presenting their views, but they shall make their students aware of serious scholarly viewpoints other than their own through classroom discussion or dissemination of written materials, and they shall encourage intellectual honesty, civil debate and the critical analysis of ideas in the pursuit of knowledge and truth (Horopito, 2003). Leftist Liberals Other groups arent as accepting of this new bill being implemented throughout college campuses.Some of these heavy hitters include; the American Federation of Teachers; The C A-Academic Association of University Professors; the National JAPE; the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAR); and various college and university professors and educators. These groups see the Academic Bill of Rights not to provide students with rights, but to institute State monitoring of universities, to impose specific points of view on instructors 0 in many cases, points of view that have been intellectually discredited and ultimately to silence dissenting voices by punishing universities that protect them (Misaims, 2005).They feel that by allowing the bill, it would place uncomfortable restrictions on what can and cannot be taught in the classroom (Winters, 2005). At a senate meeting in Ohio, CARR charges: The bill forces the board of rustles, of both public and private schools, to adopt policies about what can and cannot be taught (CARR, 2005). They call the bill an Academic bill of Restrictions. Even the AUP has said that the bill is an infringement of the free speech rights of professors (Horopito, 2005).The Middle of the Road Having read so much material relating to academic freedom, the academic bill of rights, and even political correctness, find that I am now a little more cynical than I was before began researching this topic. One problem I have with the pros and cons of this particular topic is that can understand what OTOH sides are arguing. And if agree with any one side, I will be labeled a liberal or a conservative.Its very interesting to me, someone who always considered herself a liberal; take such a shady, hazy, blurry view of what (on the surface) seems pretty cut and dry. Because I can agree with some of the things that Horopito is professing shouldnt make me any more a conservative than Jesse Jackson; and because can certainly get behind the liberals in their fight to keep Big brother out of the classroom doesnt make me a tree-hugging hippie, either. Perhaps Gill Troy had the best idea when he wrote to keep the classroom as political as possible, in his article on academic freedom he wrote: You need not be a pajama-wearing fire-breathing, Bush-loving flogger to protest the chilling effects of leftist politickings bullying academic freedom, along with government excesses and conservative histrionics (Troy, 2005).He believes that as professors; We fail when students perceive us as doctrinaire, we distort when we only engage one side of an issue, we oversimplify when we reduce everything to a political equation, we cheat when we only hire intellectual clones, we betray ourselves when we befriend only those who agree with us. (Troy, 2005). Doreen Kumara not only wants her students to disagree with her, but also wants to upset them. I have taught ATA university for over 25 years, and I hope that in that time I have offended many students; in the sense that have suggested ideas to them that they had not entertained before and which the y therefore found disturbing (Kumara, 1993). Us m Mary From the most liberal of institutions in California, to the most prestigious Ivy ague academies, professors and students have a lot of knowledge. Some of the knowledge may be self taught, or obtained through experiences, while there types of knowledge may be studied and researched over many years. In either case, these two groups have the ability to teach and learn from each other.